What Name Is Given To The Study Of Animal And Plat Tissues

Report of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals

Histology,^{[help one]} also known as microscopic anatomy or microanatomy,^[1] is the co-operative of biological science which studies the microscopic anatomy of biological tissues.^{[ii] [3] [4] [5]} Histology is the microscopic analogue to gross beefcake, which looks at larger structures visible without a microscope.^{[v] [six]} Although one may divide microscopic anatomy into organology, the study of organs, histology, the study of tissues, and cytology, the study of cells, modern usage places all of these topics nether the field of histology.^[5] In medicine, histopathology is the branch of histology that includes the microscopic identification and written report of diseased tissue.^{[v] [6]} In the field of paleontology, the term paleohistology refers to the histology of fossil organisms.^{[7] [8]}

Biological tissues [edit]

Animal tissue classification [edit]

In that location are iv bones types of brute tissues: muscle tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue, and epithelial tissue.^{[5] [9]} All animal tissues are considered to be subtypes of these four master tissue types (for example, blood is classified as connective tissue, since the claret cells are suspended in an extracellular matrix, the plasma).^[ix]

• Epithelium
  • Simple epithelium
    • Simple squamous epithelium
    • Simple cuboidal epithelium
    • Unproblematic columnar epithelium
  • Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
  • Stratified epithelium
    • Stratified squamous epithelium
    • Stratified cuboidal epithelium
    • Stratified columnar epithelium
    • Transitional epithelium
  • Multicellular glands
• Muscle tissue
  • Smooth muscle
  • Skeletal muscle
  • Cardiac muscle
• Connective tissue
  • Full general connective tissue
    • Loose connective tissue
    • Dense connective tissue
  • Special connective tissue
    • Cartilage
    • Bone
    • Hemopoietic
    • Blood
    • Lymph
• Nervous tissue
  • Central nervous system
  • Peripheral nervous system
  • Special receptors

Plant tissue classification [edit]

For plants, the study of their tissues falls under the field of found beefcake, with the following four main types:

• Dermal tissue
• Vascular tissue
• Basis tissue
• Meristematic tissue

Medical histology [edit]

Histopathology is the co-operative of histology that includes the microscopic identification and written report of diseased tissue.^{[v] [6]} It is an important role of anatomical pathology and surgical pathology, equally accurate diagnosis of cancer and other diseases frequently requires histopathological test of tissue samples.^[x] Trained physicians, oftentimes licensed pathologists, perform histopathological examination and provide diagnostic data based on their observations.

Occupations [edit]

The field of histology that includes the preparation of tissues for microscopic exam is known as histotechnology. Job titles for the trained personnel who prepare histological specimens for test are numerous and include histotechnicians, histotechnologists,^[11] histology technicians and technologists, medical laboratory technicians, and biomedical scientists.

Sample preparation [edit]

Nigh histological samples need training earlier microscopic observation; these methods depend on the specimen and method of observation.^[9]

Fixation [edit]

Chemic fixatives are used to preserve and maintain the structure of tissues and cells; fixation also hardens tissues which aids in cut the thin sections of tissue needed for observation under the microscope.^{[v] [12]} Fixatives generally preserve tissues (and cells) by irreversibly cantankerous-linking proteins.^[12] The most widely used fixative for light microscopy is ten% neutral buffered formalin, or NBF (4% formaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline).^{[xiii] [12] [9]}

For electron microscopy, the almost unremarkably used fixative is glutaraldehyde, usually equally a 2.5% solution in phosphate buffered saline.^[9] Other fixatives used for electron microscopy are osmium tetroxide or uranyl acetate.^[ix]

The main activeness of these aldehyde fixatives is to cross-link amino groups in proteins through the formation of methylene bridges (-CH₂-), in the example of formaldehyde, or past C₅H₁₀ cross-links in the case of glutaraldehyde. This process, while preserving the structural integrity of the cells and tissue tin can damage the biological functionality of proteins, particularly enzymes.

Formalin fixation leads to deposition of mRNA, miRNA, and DNA every bit well equally denaturation and modification of proteins in tissues. Even so, extraction and analysis of nucleic acids and proteins from formalin-fixed, alkane-embedded tissues is possible using appropriate protocols.^{[14] [fifteen]}

Selection and trimming [edit]

Items used for submitting specimens: (Biopsy) wrap, (biopsy) sponge, (tissue processing) cassette and (biopsy) bag.

Selection is the selection of relevant tissue in cases where it is not necessary to put the entire original tissue mass through further processing. The rest may remain fixated in case it needs to be examined at a later time.

Trimming is the cut of tissue samples in order to expose the relevant surfaces for after sectioning. It also creates tissue samples of appropriate size to fit into cassettes.^[16]

Embedding [edit]

Tissues are embedded in a harder medium both as a support and to allow the cutting of thin tissue slices.^{[9] [5]} In general, water must first be removed from tissues (aridity) and replaced with a medium that either solidifies directly, or with an intermediary fluid (clearing) that is miscible with the embedding media.^[12]

Paraffin wax [edit]

Histologic sample existence embedded in paraffin wax (tissue is held at the lesser of a metallic mold, and more than molten paraffin is poured over it to fill it).

For light microscopy, paraffin wax is the almost oftentimes used embedding fabric.^{[12] [13]} Paraffin is immiscible with water, the primary constituent of biological tissue, then it must offset exist removed in a series of dehydration steps.^[12] Samples are transferred through a series of progressively more concentrated ethanol baths, up to 100% ethanol to remove remaining traces of h2o.^{[9] [12]} Dehydration is followed by a clearing agent (typically xylene^[13] although other environmental safe substitutes are in use^[13]) which removes the alcohol and is miscible with the wax, finally melted alkane wax is added to replace the xylene and infiltrate the tissue.^[ix] In nigh histology, or histopathology laboratories the aridity, clearing, and wax infiltration are carried out in tissue processors which automate this procedure.^[xiii] Once infiltrated in paraffin, tissues are oriented in molds which are filled with wax; once positioned, the wax is cooled, solidifying the block and tissue.^{[13] [12]}

Other materials [edit]

Methane series wax does not always provide a sufficiently hard matrix for cutting very thin sections (which are especially important for electron microscopy).^[12] Paraffin wax may also be too soft in relation to the tissue, the oestrus of the melted wax may change the tissue in undesirable ways, or the dehydrating or clearing chemicals may harm the tissue.^[12] Alternatives to alkane series wax include, epoxy, acrylic, agar, gelatin, celloidin, and other types of waxes.^{[12] [17]}

In electron microscopy epoxy resins are the most commonly employed embedding media,^[9] but acrylic resins are likewise used, particularly where immunohistochemistry is required.

For tissues to exist cut in a frozen state, tissues are placed in a h2o-based embedding medium. Pre-frozen tissues are placed into molds with the liquid embedding material, usually a water-based glycol, OCT, TBS, Cryogel, or resin, which is so frozen to form hardened blocks.

Sectioning [edit]

Histologic sample existence cut on a microtome.

For light microscopy, a knife mounted in a microtome is used to cut tissue sections (typically betwixt 5-fifteen micrometers thick) which are mounted on a drinking glass microscope slide.^[9] For transmission electron microscopy (TEM), a diamond or glass knife mounted in an ultramicrotome is used to cut betwixt 50 and 150 nanometer thick tissue sections.^[ix]

Staining [edit]

Biological tissue has little inherent contrast in either the light or electron microscope.^[17] Staining is employed to requite both contrast to the tissue equally well equally highlighting particular features of interest. When the stain is used to target a specific chemic component of the tissue (and non the general structure), the term histochemistry is used.^[9]

Light microscopy [edit]

Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E stain) is i of the nigh ordinarily used stains in histology to evidence the general structure of the tissue.^{[ix] [eighteen]} Hematoxylin stains prison cell nuclei blue; eosin, an acidic dye, stains the cytoplasm and other tissues in different stains of pink.^{[9] [12]}

In contrast to H&E, which is used equally a full general stain, at that place are many techniques that more selectively stain cells, cellular components, and specific substances.^[12] A normally performed histochemical technique that targets a specific chemical is the Perls' Prussian blue reaction, used to demonstrate atomic number 26 deposits^[12] in diseases like hemochromatosis. The Nissl method for Nissl substance and Golgi'south method (and related silver stains) are useful in identifying neurons are other examples of more specific stains.^[12]

Historadiography [edit]

In historadiography, a slide (sometimes stained histochemically) is X-rayed. More than usually, autoradiography is used in visualizing the locations to which a radioactive substance has been transported inside the body, such every bit cells in S phase (undergoing DNA replication) which incorporate tritiated thymidine, or sites to which radiolabeled nucleic acid probes demark in in situ hybridization. For autoradiography on a microscopic level, the slide is typically dipped into liquid nuclear tract emulsion, which dries to form the exposure film. Individual silver grains in the film are visualized with dark field microscopy.

Immunohistochemistry [edit]

Recently, antibodies have been used to specifically visualize proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. This process is chosen immunohistochemistry, or when the stain is a fluorescent molecule, immunofluorescence. This technique has greatly increased the ability to place categories of cells nether a microscope. Other advanced techniques, such as nonradioactive in situ hybridization, can be combined with immunochemistry to place specific DNA or RNA molecules with fluorescent probes or tags that can exist used for immunofluorescence and enzyme-linked fluorescence amplification (particularly alkaline phosphatase and tyramide signal amplification). Fluorescence microscopy and confocal microscopy are used to detect fluorescent signals with expert intracellular detail.

Electron microscopy [edit]

For electron microscopy heavy metals are typically used to stain tissue sections.^[9] Uranyl acetate and lead citrate are commonly used to impart dissimilarity to tissue in the electron microscope.^[9]

Specialized techniques [edit]

Cryosectioning [edit]

Like to the frozen section procedure employed in medicine, cryosectioning is a method to speedily freeze, cut, and mount sections of tissue for histology. The tissue is usually sectioned on a cryostat or freezing microtome.^[12] The frozen sections are mounted on a glass slide and may be stained to enhance the contrast between different tissues. Unfixed frozen sections can be used for studies requiring enzyme localization in tissues and cells. Tissue fixation is required for certain procedures such as antibody-linked immunofluorescence staining. Frozen sections are often prepared during surgical removal of tumors to let rapid identification of tumor margins, as in Mohs surgery, or decision of tumor malignancy, when a tumor is discovered incidentally during surgery.

Ultramicrotomy [edit]

Ultramicrotomy is a method of preparing extremely thin sections for manual electron microscope (TEM) analysis. Tissues are commonly embedded in epoxy or other plastic resin.^[nine] Very thin sections (less than 0.ane micrometer in thickness) are cut using diamond or glass knives on an ultramicrotome.^[12]

Artifacts [edit]

Artifacts are structures or features in tissue that interfere with normal histological test. Artifacts interfere with histology by changing the tissues appearance and hiding structures. Tissue processing artifacts can include pigments formed by fixatives,^[12] shrinkage, washing out of cellular components, color changes in dissimilar tissues types and alterations of the structures in the tissue. An instance is mercury pigment left behind later using Zenker's fixative to set up a section.^[12] Formalin fixation can also leave a brown to blackness pigment under acidic weather.^[12]

History [edit]

In the 17th century the Italian Marcello Malpighi used microscopes to study tiny biological entities; some regard him as the founder of the fields of histology and microscopic pathology.^{[19] [20]} Malpighi analyzed several parts of the organs of bats, frogs and other animals under the microscope. While studying the structure of the lung, Malpighi noticed its bleary alveoli and the hair-similar connections between veins and arteries, which he named capillaries. His discovery established how the oxygen breathed in enters the claret stream and serves the body.^[21]

In the 19th century histology was an academic bailiwick in its ain correct. The French anatomist Xavier Bichat introduced the concept of tissue in anatomy in 1801,^[22] and the term "histology" (German: Histologie), coined to denote the "report of tissues", first appeared in a book by Karl Meyer in 1819.^{[23] [24] [xix]} Bichat described twenty-one human tissues, which can be subsumed under the four categories currently accepted by histologists.^[25] The usage of illustrations in histology, deemed equally useless by Bichat, was promoted past Jean Cruveilhier.^{[26] [ when? ]}

In the early 1830s Purkynĕ invented a microtome with high precision.^[24]

During the 19th century many fixation techniques were developed past Adolph Hannover (solutions of chromates and chromic acid), Franz Schulze and Max Schultze (osmic acrid), Alexander Butlerov (formaldehyde) and Benedikt Stilling (freezing).^[24]

Mounting techniques were adult past Rudolf Heidenhain (1824-1898), who introduced gum Arabic; Salomon Stricker (1834-1898), who advocated a mixture of wax and oil; and Andrew Pritchard (1804-1884) who, in 1832, used a glue/isinglass mixture. In the same yr, Canada balsam appeared on the scene, and in 1869 Edwin Klebs (1834-1913) reported that he had for some years embedded his specimens in paraffin.^[27]

The 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to histologists Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal. They had conflicting interpretations of the neural construction of the brain based on differing interpretations of the same images. Ramón y Cajal won the prize for his right theory, and Golgi for the silver-staining technique that he invented to make information technology possible.^[28]

Future directions [edit]

In vivo histology [edit]

Currently in that location is intense involvement in developing techniques for in vivo histology (predominantly using MRI), which would enable doctors to not-invasively gather information about healthy and diseased tissues in living patients, rather than from fixed tissue samples.^{[29] [30] [31] [32]}

Notes [edit]

1. ^ The word histology () is New Latin using the combining forms of histo- + -logy, yielding "tissue study", from the Greek words ἱστός histos , "tissue", and -λογία , "written report".

References [edit]

1. ^ "Microanatomy definition and meaning". Collins English Dictionary.
2. ^ "Histology | physiology". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 2018-10-29 .
3. ^ "DefinedTerm: Histology". Divers Term. Archived from the original on 2018-10-29. Retrieved 2018-10-29 .
4. ^ Maximow, Alexander A.; Bloom, William (1957). A textbook of Histology (Seventh ed.). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company.
5. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Leeson, Thomas S.; Leeson, C. Roland (1981). Histology (Fourth ed.). W. B. Saunders Visitor. p. 600. ISBN978-0721657042.
6. ^ ^{a b c} Stedman's medical dictionary (27th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2006. ISBN978-0683400076.
7. ^ Padian, Kevin; Lamm, Ellen-Thérèse, eds. (2013). Bone histology of fossil tetrapods : Advancing methods, analysis, and interpretation (1st ed.). University of California Printing. p. 298. ISBN978-0-520-27352-8.
8. ^ Canoville A, Chinsamy A (2015). "Bone Microstructure of the Stereospondyl Lydekkerina Huxleyi Reveals Adaptive Strategies to the Harsh Post Permian-Extinction Surround". The Anatomical Record. 298 (7): 1237–54. doi:10.1002/ar.23160. PMID 25857487. S2CID 43628074.
9. ^ ^{a b c d east f m h i j k fifty yard n o p q r} Ross, Michael H.; Pawlina, Wojciech (2016). Histology : a text and atlas : with correlated prison cell and molecular biological science (7th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. pp. 984p. ISBN978-1451187427.
10. ^ Rosai J (2007). "Why microscopy will remain a cornerstone of surgical pathology". Lab Invest. 87 (5): 403–viii. doi:10.1038/labinvest.3700551. PMID 17401434. S2CID 27399409.
11. ^ Titford, Michael; Bowman, Blythe (2012). "What May the Future Hold for Histotechnologists?". Laboratory Medicine. 43 (suppl 2): e5–e10. doi:10.1309/LMXB668WDCBIAWJL. ISSN 0007-5027.
12. ^ ^{a b c d e f one thousand h i j k l grand n o p q r s t} Bancroft, John; Stevens, Alan, eds. (1982). The Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques (2nd ed.). Longman Group Limited.
13. ^ ^{a b c d east f} Wick, Mark R. (2019). "The hematoxylin and eosin stain in anatomic pathology—An often-neglected focus of quality balls in the laboratory". Seminars in Diagnostic Pathology. 36 (5): 303–311. doi:10.1053/j.semdp.2019.06.003. ISSN 0740-2570. PMID 31230963. S2CID 195326749.
14. ^ Weiss AT, Delcour NM, Meyer A, Klopfleisch R (July 2011). "Efficient and cost-effective extraction of genomic Deoxyribonucleic acid from formalin-stock-still and paraffin-embedded tissues". Veterinary Pathology. 48 (four): 834–8. doi:10.1177/0300985810380399. PMID 20817894. S2CID 34974790.
15. ^ Bennike TB, Kastaniegaard G, Padurariu Due south, Gaihede M, Birkelund S, Andersen V, Stensballe A (March 2016). "Comparing the proteome of snap frozen, RNAlater preserved, and formalin-stock-still alkane-embedded human tissue samples". EuPA Open Proteomics. x: 9–xviii. doi:10.1016/j.euprot.2015.10.001. PMC5988570. PMID 29900094.
16. ^ Slaoui, Mohamed; Fiette, Laurence (2011). "Histopathology Procedures: From Tissue Sampling to Histopathological Evaluation". Drug Safety Evaluation. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 691. pp. 69–82. doi:10.1007/978-1-60761-849-2_4. ISBN978-1-60327-186-viii. ISSN 1064-3745. PMID 20972747.
17. ^ ^{a b} Drury, R. A. B.; Wallington, East. A. (1980). Carleton's Histological Technique (5th ed.). Oxford Academy Press. p. 520. ISBN0-nineteen-261310-3.
18. ^ Dapson RW, Horobin RW (2009). "Dyes from a twenty-get-go century perspective". Biotech Histochem. 84 (4): 135–7. doi:10.1080/10520290902908802. PMID 19384743. S2CID 28563610.
19. ^ ^{a b} Bracegirdle B (1977). "The History of Histology: A Brief Survey of Sources". History of Scientific discipline. xv (2): 77–101. Bibcode:1977HisSc..fifteen...77B. doi:10.1177/007327537701500201. S2CID 161338778.
20. ^ Motta PM (1998). "Marcello Malpighi and the foundations of functional microanatomy". Anat Rec. 253 (1): ten–2. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(199802)253:1<10::Aid-AR7>three.0.CO;two-I. PMID 9556019.
21. ^ Adelmann HB, Malpighi 1000 (1966). Marcello Malpighi and the Evolution of Embryology. Vol. v. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. OCLC 306783.
22. ^ Bichat 10 (1801). "Considérations générales". Anatomie générale appliquée à la physiologie et à la médecine (in French). Paris: Chez Brosson, Gabon et Cie, Libraires, rue Pierre-Sarrazin, no. vii, et place de l'École de Médecine. pp. cvj–cxj.
23. ^ Mayer AF (1819). Ueber Histologie und eine neue Eintheilung der Gewebe des menschlichen Körpers (in German). Bonn: Adolph Marcus.
24. ^ ^{a b c} Bock O (2015). "A history of the evolution of histology up to the end of the nineteenth century". Inquiry. 2: 1283. doi:10.13070/rs.en.2.1283 (inactive 28 February 2022). {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive equally of February 2022 (link)
25. ^ Rather LJ (1978). The Genesis of Cancer: A Study in the History of Ideas . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Academy Press. ISBN9780801821035. Near of Bichat'due south twenty-one tissues can exist subsumed under the four categories more often than not accustomed by contemporary histologists; epithelium, connective tissue, muscle, and nervus. Four of Bichat's tissues fall under the heading of epithelium (epidermoid, mucous, serous, and synovial); half-dozen under connective tissue (dermoid, fibrous, fibrocartilaginous, cartilaginous, osseous, and cellular); ii nether muscle; and 2 under nerve — the stardom between nervous governing "animal" life and nervous governing "organic" life corresponds with that between the voluntary and involuntary nervous systems. The arteries and the veins, long sources of contention, are classified today equally chemical compound tissues. The absorbents and the exhalants (which Bichat thought to exist open-concluded vessels) have dropped out or been replaced by the lymphatics. His medullary organization has no analogue among the nowadays-day tissues.
26. ^ Meli DB (2017). Visualizing disease: the art and history of pathological illustrations. Chicago: The Academy of Chicago Press. ^{[ page needed ]}
27. ^ Bock, Ortwin (2015-01-05). "A history of the evolution of histology up to the end of the nineteenth century". Research.
28. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906". NobelPrize.org.
29. ^ Dominietto, Marco; Rudin, Markus (2014). "Could magnetic resonance provide in vivo histology?". Frontiers in Genetics. 4: 298. doi:ten.3389/fgene.2013.00298. ISSN 1664-8021. PMC3888945. PMID 24454320.
30. ^ Delnoij, Thijs; van Suylen, Robert Jan; Cleutjens, Jack P.M.; Schalla, Simon; Bekkers, Sebastiaan C.A.K. (October 2009). "In vivo histology by cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging". European Centre Periodical. 30 (20): 2492. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehp319. ISSN 1522-9645. PMID 19696188.
31. ^ Bridge, Holly; Clare, Stuart (2006-01-29). "High-resolution MRI: in vivo histology?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 361 (1465): 137–146. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1777. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC1626544. PMID 16553313.
32. ^ Deistung, Andreas; Schäfer, Andreas; Schweser, Ferdinand; Biedermann, Uta; Turner, Robert; Reichenbach, Jürgen R. (January 2013). "Toward in vivo histology: A comparison of quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) with magnitude-, phase-, and R2⁎-imaging at ultra-high magnetic field force". NeuroImage. 65: 299–314. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.09.055. PMID 23036448. S2CID 140122831.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histology

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